India’s Caste System Free Essays

The caste system is a system of division of labour and power in human society. It is a system of social stratification, and a basis foraffirmative action. Historically, it defined communities into thousands of endogamous hereditary groups called Jatis. We will write a custom essay sample on India’s Caste System or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Jatis were grouped by the Brahminical texts under the four well-known caste categories (the varnas): viz Brahmins, Kshatriyas,Vaishyas, and Shudras. Certain people were excluded altogether, ostracized by all other castes and treated as untouchables. Although identified with Hinduism, caste systems have also been observed among other religions on the Indian subcontinent, including some groups of Muslims, Buddha. Caste is commonly thought of as an ancient fact of Hindu life, but various contemporary scholars have argued that the caste system was constructed by the British colonial regime. Caste is neither unique to Hindu religion nor to India; caste systems have been observed in other parts of the world, for example, in the Muslim community of Yemen, Christian colonies of Spain, and Japan. The Indian government officially recognizes historically discriminated lowest castes of India such as Untouchables and Shudras underScheduled Castes, and certain economically backward castes as Other Backward Castes. The Scheduled Castes are sometimes referred to as Dalit in contemporary literature. In 2001, the proportion of Dalit population was 16. 2 percent of India’s total population. Since 1950, India has enacted and implemented many laws and social initiatives to protect and improve the socio-economic conditions of its Dalit population. By 1995, of all jobs in the Central Government service, 17. 2 percent of the jobs were held by Dalits. Of the highest paying, senior most jobs in government agencies and government controlled enterprises, over 10 percent were held by members of the Dalit community, a tenfold increase in 40 years but yet to fill up the 15 percent reserved quota for them. In 1997, India democratically elected K. R. Narayanan, a Dalit, as the nation’s President. In the last 15 years, Indians born in historically discriminated minority castes have been elected to its highest judicial and political offices. While the quality of life of Dalit population in India, in terms of metrics such as poverty, literacy rate, access to health care, life expectancy, education attainability, access to drinking water, housing, etc. have seen faster growth amongst the Dalit population between 1986 and 2006, for some metrics, it remains lower than overall non-Dalit population, and for some it is better than poor non-Dalit population. A 2003 report claims inter-caste marriage is on the rise in urban India. Indian societal relationships are changing because of female literacy and education, women at work, urbanization, need for two-income families, and influences from the media. India’s overall economic growth has produced the fastest and most significant socio-economic changes to the historical injustice to its minorities. Legal and social program initiatives are no longer India’s primary constraint in further advancement of India’s historically discriminated sections of society and the poor. Further advancements are likely to come from improvements in the supply of quality schools in rural and urban India, along with India’s economic growth. How to cite India’s Caste System, Essay examples

Elizabeth bishop s poem the fi Essay Example For Students

Elizabeth bishop s poem the fi Essay From the onset of civilization, society has increased its capabilities in the quest for survival. Methods of achieving fundamental needs have been belittled through modernization. In 1946, a time period defined by abundant technological advancement, Elizabeth Bishop describes the art of capturing a fish from water, an act once used simply as a food source, in her poem â€Å"The Fish.† As the narrator caught the fish only to observe and then release the creature, the reader develops a desire to discover exactly what is being observed. Upon analysis of the work, the poem represents Bishop’s personal life, historical events of importance to her, and her views on American society. First of all, as the fish is held beside the boat, Bishop sees elements of her own personal existence in the animal. For instance, as the fish struggled for air, its gills were â€Å"crisp from blood (because breathing) can cut so badly†(Bishop 1211). The fish represents previously repressed inner thoughts, and its advancement into the conscious environment creates extreme pain. Like the fish, most creatures can exist only in an aquatic condition, or a terrestrial condition, just as an individuals thoughts can occupy either a cognizant or a subliminal setting. Next, as the speaker attempts to look into the fish’s eyes, the vision is â€Å"seen through the lenses of old scratched isinglass† (Bishop 1211). Isinglass, a product from the internal organs of fish used to produce windows, creates a paradoxical statement, showing that one cannot completely connect with their internal feelings. The hazy circular relationship between the fish and mariner displays the strug gle for an individual to connect with their inner self. Finally, preceding the release of the animal, five hooks from earlier retrievals are described as the fish’s â€Å"beard of wisdom† (Bishop 1212). The collection of strings symbolize past personal revelations that Bishop arrived at by connecting with herself. In order to validate this argument, one must visualize the body of water that contains the fish as a private place only accessible to its single user, just as an individual’s mind is perceived. In summary, Bishop’s fish represents her internal existence. After providing reflections of her personal life, Bishop’s story provides a window to important historical events. First, the texture of the fish is referred to as â€Å"ancient wallpaper† and â€Å"tarnished tinfoil†, and the fishing boat’s components are â€Å"rusted† and â€Å"sun-cracked† (Bishop 1210-12). The fish, in this case, represents the decay of common objects, providing evidence of the temporality of earthly possessions. The vessel shows aging blemishes as it journeys through the water, depicting the mortality of human life during their interim presence on earth. Next, as the fish and boater part ways, the water, potent of gasoline from the boat, provided a rainbow display. In this example, Bishop uses the fish to represent mankind and the fisherman as a symbol of God, recounting the story of Noah’s Ark. In the Biblical tale, after punishing mankind for God shows his promise to end mans’ suffering with the rainbow. For instance, the animal showed five wounds as it was pulled from the water. These scars are connected with Jesus’ injuries obtained at His crucifixion. The ease of acceptance of and the ability to reject religion are clearly shown at the beginning and end of the poem. Finally, Bishop’s fish represents the society that produced the poem. According to commentary from Bonnie Costello, author of Elizabeth Bishop: Questions of Mastery, the fish is a sexless creature exhibiting both male and female traits. First, the fish is male when its â€Å"untamable, corporeal energy violates the domestic world of wallpaper and roses.† (Costello 63) The uncontainable characteristics parallel features of the culture of 1946, the year that Bishop wrote the poem. The pen of the female poet shows both frustration and remorseful acceptance for her man dominated society. Later, the fish’s beholder imagines the interior features such as â€Å"shiny entrails, and the pink swim b ladder, like a big (flower)† (Bishop 1211). The female features are covered from view by the rugged exterior, portraying the woman’s submissive role. A secondary interpretation shows the conflict between the masculine society and â€Å"Mother Nature†, the feminine force. In this example, the struggle between

Affirmative Action Essays - Social Inequality, Politics,

Affirmative Action "Treating people differently because of the color of their skin used to be called discrimination, but today it's called affirmative action" (Amselle 177). Affirmative action today, is considered to be one of the most controversial dilemma facing our equal status of individual rights. As we all know, affirmative action was implemented with the idea and hope that America would finally become truly equal. So far, it has lasted for thirty years and had not solved any of our current problems concerning equal rights ? it made things worse. It was created with the intention of using reverse discrimination to solve the problem of discrimination. In that, minority groups are being chosen over the qualifications of other workers. This intention creates a mainstream of problems. Some find it very unfair in using its practices, some find it very helpful. The portion of the group that stands with affirmative action, are usually in a situation in which they actually benefited from it. They have their reasons as to why they support the action. Based on the general public as to why they acknowledge affirmative action is usually based of the fact that it establishes a situation where equal opportunity is distributed among minorities for jobs. Prior to affirmative action ? city, state, and government jobs were almost completely closed off to minorities and women. In our present day, minorities and women have gained a tremendous increase in the application of jobs in those workplaces. Unlike the days before affirmative action, where job opportunity was mostly given to the Americans, now jobs are being given to minorities and women due to the quota system. Suppose that a American male and a minority (Hispanic, Afro-American, woman, etc.) are applying for the same job, the American male is much more qualified than the minority, there! fore, logically, the American should be hired. Due to the quota system, the company, in order to meet that quota, must hire the minority. Which is for the better, because, in that sense, were are slowly but surely making some advancements in solving the problem of racial inequality in America's workplace. Affirmative action is also very influential in the educational system. Minority students who before never had a chance in being accepted into a decent college, are now being accepted. They are given the chance to prove that, with the help of affirmative action, they could, in turn, get more education and end up with a decent job after graduating. All hopes are to end racism in school campuses, to have diversity between students. The constitution says that we the people of the United States of America are all created equal. Therefore, since that we are all equal, shouldn't we all have the same opportunity as everyone else. Equal opportunity is achieved when people of lower standards in life are given chances to succeed in life. To start to achieve a better life, one must have proper education, because education is the key to our future. Therefore, though education, minorities must be given the chance to get a good start at securing their future. Critics of affirmative action argue that this quota is unfair. White males are being forced to pay a price that their ancestors have done wrong in the past. Knowingly that it was a long time ago, and that now, it is a dawn of a new era. White males should not be given this burden of something that their ancestors have done. While the minorities enjoy the benefits such as jobs and education. Especially, to give favor to males or to females, to whites, to blacks or to persons of any color because of their sex or color is morally wrong because doing so is intrinsically unfair. Color, nationality, sex are not attributes that entitle anyone to more (or less) of the good thing of life, or to any special favor (or disfavor). When in the past whites or males did receive such preference that was deeply wrong; it is no less wrong when the colors or sexes are reversed. (Cohen 183) In the workplace, critics argue that because of affirmative action, now they are being treated unequally. Jobs in which they are more likely to succeed in are, instead, being passed down to less qualified minorities. Not only does this affect the potential white employees, but the employer also has to suffer this condition. Employers are being asked to hire less qualified worker and sometimes for more money too. In concern with

role of sexes essays

role of sexes essays Roles of the Sexes The submissive role of the female in a marriage or relationship is a common problem in many societies, including our own American society. This role has become so common that in fact it is now expected of the female. This male dominance goes as far back as the human race, to the beginning of relationships and marriage between the female and the male. Then, the physical prowess of the male led to his dominance in all situations and thus formed these roles. Even presently, with all our advances in equal rights and womens advances in the work fields, this role of submission and passivity is still present among our society. Why do women accept this role? Why hasnt it banished with the right to vote and her expansion into the male-dominated workplace? These roles are inbred into our society. The men are raised to lead and take charge. Women, on the other hand, are taught that their place is to keep peace, and in most scenarios that means conforming. There are many reasons women accept or allow this role. For many women, they find safety in allowing the male to dominate the relationship. The submissive role is familiar or so expected that the women fear changing the situation. Many authors illustrate this role of the sexes and portray some reasons and situations that are common in our society, such as Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette, in her story The Hand, and James Joyce, in Eveline. These two authors both, even though each describes a woman in a very different, yet remarkably similar, situation, discuss one of the major reasons women succumb to males. Colette was a significant feminist in the early 1900s when the womens right movement was in full swing. She fought for equal opportunities for women and proved it was possible when she was the first woman to be admitted to the Goncourt Academy. As a novelis...

The Buzz about Burt's Bees Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Buzz about Burt's Bees - Essay Example wasteful packaging, using the best ingredients, and refusing to engage in retail business through chain stores that regularly violate environmental principles. It is this commitment to ideals that has set Burt’s apart from other manufacturers. 3. Soap is soap, but some is better than others – for a price. Burt’s Bees faces limited competition from more traditional personal-care products of larger companies from Procter & Gamble because of the specialty of their personal hygiene and beauty products. The larger companies cater to a much larger scale of manufacture and distribution. As such, they cannot focus on naturally raw concoctions and environmental friendly distribution. It would mean a complete rescaling to attempt to compete with Burt’s. Nevertheless, cost is a factor to most consumers, and it is simply more cost effective to purchase the products of larger companies. In the end, the competition is limited as a balance of supply with

Processes of manufacturing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Processes of manufacturing - Assignment Example 3. In casting, the grain structures are not aligned parallel to one another, but are random in alignment. In forming, the grains are aligned to one direction and are closely packed, which impacts greater strength. 4. Forging techniques used are open forging that involves heating the material and hammering it on an anvil; drop forging which involves forging material in a die using a hammer or impacting force; press forging, which involves the use of pressure to force materials into a die; roll forging, which requires the use of rollers and cold forging, which is best suited for smaller objects and involves extrusion through a die. 8. Pipe forming may be achieved through ram style bending, which involves resting the pipe at two internal points and having a rim pressing on the central axis to deform. Rotary draw bending involves drawing the pipe through stationery counter die into the required radius. Ring roll bending involves bending pipes to a large radius or circumferences. 4. Machines for bending angles include rotary-draw for tubes and pipes, push-roll machines, which accommodate roll formed and rotary –draw bends in a single operation and compression machines for heavy materials. 8. Deep drawing involves a work piece deforming in a larger dimension than its diameter. In shallow drawing, the depth of draw is much less than the smallest measurement of the opening. In flexible die, a flexible material replaces one of the dies. The method involves the use of materials such as rubber as the flexible material. 1. Injection and extrusion moulding used for small items, vacuum forming used to form thin sheets of plastic, press forming which uses positive and negative moulds with a plastic sheet between and blow moulding for bottles. 4. Advantages. It involves high speeds production, versatile in producing a wide range of products, good dimensional stability. Disadvantages. Delicate to

The Conservation Of Madagascar And Its Lemurs Biology Essay

The Conservation Of Madagascar And Its Lemurs Biology Essay The extraordinary island of Madagascar is unlike anywhere else on earth. Roughly the size of France, with an area of 226,658 square miles, it is the worlds fourth largest island. It lies in the Indian Ocean, approximatly 250 miles off the coast of Southern Africa. Madagascar, and the tiny island of Comoro, provide the only present-day native habitat to lemurs (Butler, 2009). Nicknamed the 8th Continent because of its diversity of species (Hooper, 2005), Madagascar lacks the dominant form of primates distributed worldwide. Instead, their niche has been filled by an older group of primates, the Lemurs. Due to Madagascars isolation, lemurs have an interesting evolutionary history. Madagascar was originally part of the super continent Gondwanaland. As Gondwanaland began to break apart around 160 million years ago, Madagascar broke away from Africa (Carwardine, 2009). The Island continued to drift, moving away from Africa and by the evolution of monkeys, 17-23 million years ago, Madagascar was already isolated. As highly intelligent and adaptive primates, monkeys, quickly became the dominant primates around the rest of the world. The Strepsirhini, the suborder that includes the lemurs, lorises, bushbabies, and pottos, were driven away and towards extinction by these advanced primates. The lorises, bushbabies, and pottos were able to relatively successfully coexist with the monkeys, largely due to their nocturnal and insectivorous traits. They did not compete with the monkeys; however, the lemur lineage was driven to find a new home, Madagascar (Baines, 1997). As the island of Madagascar drifted futher from Africa, the lemurs were then isolated from the rest of the world and its evolutionary changes. They are now By far the most renowned and diverse group of Madagascars mammals (Sauther, 2009). They have spread throughout Madagascar, filling the niches without much competition or predators. Today lemurs are found in almost all of the ecosystems of Madagascar (Carwardine, 2009), many have adapted in amazing and bizarre ways to ensure their survival. Higher primates or homo-sapiens did not reach Madagascar until around 2,000 years ago, when they learned to navigate the seas (Oldfield, 2002). Once there, humans began to systematically destroy the previously untouched island .15 species of lemur are known to have become be extinct, but many more are thought to have disappeared before they were even discovered. Currently all lemurs are in danger, largely due to habitat destruction and hunting. Madagascars terrain is as diverse as its wildlife with coastal plains, mountain ranges, dramatic escarpments, and dense rainforest. As such, there is a great diversity of ecosystems, each with differing vegetation and therefore: different species. This is usually in accordance with relief, geology and rainfall. The first humans to arrive on Madagascar were the ancestors of the Sakalava people, who originated in Indonesia and now live in the West of the island. These early settlers practiced shifting cultivation, burning the previously untouched vegetation. In the 9th and 13th centuries respectively, the ancestors of the Merina people and Betsileo tribes of Northern Madagascar also arrived from Indonesia, and began farming rice. During the last 1,200 years people from Africa and the Arabian Peninsular have also settled in Madagascar, bringing with them Zebu cattle. Many traditional ceremonies and rituals are based around Zebu cattle, even today many Madagascians measure their wealth by the number of Zebu they own. As such there is now more Zebu than people on Madagascar. Every year vast areas of vegetation are burnt in an attempt to improve pasture for these animals (Oldfield, 2002). In 1895 Madagascar became a French colony. These new settlers began harvesting valuable hardwoods for export, such as ebonies and rosewoods, the harvesting of these trees continues today. The endangered Dalbergia delphinensis tree is one of over 30 rosewoods threatened due to selective felling (Oldfield, 2009). The restricted distribution of this species also coincides with a proposed site for a titanium mine which threatens all the remaining coastal forest in Southeast Madagascar (Kimball, 2009). Also to its detriment, Madagascars rainforests contain valuable minerals, such as gold and sapphires. Attempts to extract these poses further threats. Mining is one of the many threats to Madagascars forests and the many species that rely on them. Wood is also cut for fuel and many logging companies are keen to acquire forest concessions. Another threat is the local form of shifting cultivation known as tavy. Most of Madagascars 13 million human inhabitants depend on the land for their livelihood. Massive amounts of forest are cleared every year by cut and burn techniques for rice cultivation, maize and cassava. Many areas are exhausted of their nutrients and then abandoned, the secondary vegetation that then grows is known as savoka, this is eventually replaced by grassland (Oldfield, 2002). Madagascar is home to a massive 10,000 or so plant species, 80% of which are endemic to the island (Carwardine, 2009). Although Madagascars animal diversity is less striking, many species are unique to the island. Over 250 bird species, nearly half of which are endemic to the island, 300 species of reptiles, over 90% of which are found only on Madagascar (Oldfield, 2002). The islands only amphibians, 178 frog species, all of which are endemic and more than 33 known species of lemur inhabit Madagascar, more than half in its depleting rainforests. According to the Botanist, Henri Perrier de la Bathie, writng in 1921, The once mighty rainforests of Madagascar have declined dramatically. As early as 1921, felling had destroyed ninety per cent of Madagascars forests (Sauther, 2006 ). Biologically, it is regarded as one of the richest areas on the planet (Green, 1990), however, no one has ever managed to make a full evaluation of Madagascars many threatened rainforest species. Conservation-status information on some species of animals and trees has been assembled, but is nowhere near complete. Of the rainforest species of lemurs alone, threatened species include the Indri, as well as the Aye-aye, Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur, Golden Bamboo Lemur and the Red-bellied Lemur. According to Ian Tattershal in Michelle Sauthers report, Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptations, there is general agreement that the lemurs, including the recently extinct subfossil forms, should be classified into seven families: Cheirogaleidae, the dwarf lemurs with five living genera; Lemuridae, the true lemurs and their close relatives, with five genera (one extinct); Lepilemuridae, with two genera (one extinct); Indriidae, with three living genera, Archaeolemuridae, with two genera (both extinct); Palaeopropithecidae, with four genera (all extinct) and Daubentoniidae, the aye-ayes, with a single living genus and species. Depending on whose classification is accepted, living lemurs may number up to forty different species and possibly even up to seventy two species, if subspecies are included in the count. With these numbers, and despite recent extinctions, Madagascar ranks third highest on the list of high-primate diversity countries worldwide (Sauther, 2009), despite being only one tenth of the size of the world leader, Brazil. All of these species of lemur are endemic to Madagascar. According to the ICUN Red List of Threatened Species, each of these species has different threats to their survival. Many lemurs, such as the Red-ruffed Lemur, and many types of bamboo lemurs are critically endangered. With a drastically reduced habitat there are few left in the wild. The Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur, Golden-brown Mouse Lemur, and the Black and White Ruffed Lemurs are not as close to extinction, but are listed as endangered. Some of the lemurs listed as vulnerable include the Black Lemur, Crowned Lemur, and a number of Fork-marked Lemurs. Perhaps the most remarkable lemur species have long been extinct. These included the Archaeoindris, which was larger than an adult male gorilla, the Babakotia and the Magaladapsis. All lemurs are protected by law, and in many communities it is considered taboo to kill an Indri, but elsewhere, the Indri, and many other species of lemur, are hunted for food and sometimes sold as bush meat or pets (Carwardne, 2009). Madagascar has suffered environmental degradation over a significant part of its land mass. Once covered with rainforests, most of the Eastern third of Madagascar is now, either barren, or reduced to shrub land. As indigenous vegetation is cut and burned for fuel many areas such as the Spiny forest, which contains many rare plant and animal species endemic to the island, have given way to cactus scrub. Around eighty per cent of the original plant cover has been destroyed and much of the terrain is now degraded grassland (Oldfield, 2002). Each year, a further 1% of Madagascars forests are levelled. This mass deforestation not only affects the land and its inhabitants directly, but also indirectly. Without vegetation to absorb moisture the soil is eroding away at an alarming rate. Enviromental regulations have been in place to protect the forests and species of Madagascar since 1881 and at present, more money is put towards the conservation of Madagascar, than any other part of Africa (Butler, 2009). Madagascar is one of the worlds poorest nations, with a per capita income of approximately $240 per year. About 80 percent of the population are subsistence farmers, many of whom depend entirely on natural capital to support their way of life. The peoples dependency on the land and natural resources is of major consequence to Madagascars ecosystems and endemic biodiversity (Kremen, 2010). The major environmental problems of Madagascar include deforestation, and thus loss of habitat, agricultural fires, erosion and soil degradation and the over exploitation of resources. The deforestation of Madagascar can be mostly attributed to three activities. Tavy, or slash and burn agriculture, logging for timber, and fuel wood and charcoal production. Tavy is a large part of Malagasy culture, and has been since the arrival of humans on the island. It is used to convert tropical rainforest into rice fields. An acre or two of land may be cut or burned; it is then planted with rice. After several years production the land is then left fallow for up to six years before replanting (Kremen, 2010). After several of these cycles the land is exhausted of all its nutrients and no primary vegetation will grow. The land then becomes barren and only scrubs and a few grasses will grow. This vegetation is often insufficient to anchor the soil, especially on slopes, making erosion a problem. According to the ICUN, the high value of Malagasy hardwoods also makes logging for timber a significant problem in many areas of Madagascar, especially in the rainforests of Eastern Madagascar. Even the few areas that are protected are often illegally logged and even the endemic spiny forests of Madagascar are being cut at an alarming rate for charcoal and fuelwood production. Every year, as much as a third of what remains of Madagascars forest burn. Fires set for land clearing and pastureland often spread into adjoining forests ,causing much damage and further reducing the habitat of many species of flora and fauna. For Madagascar, a country that relies on agricultural production as the foundation of its economy, the loss of this soil, due to erosion, is a massive problem. The deforestation of Madagascars central highlands plus weathering has resulted in massive soil erosion accounting for up to 400 tons per year. Every yea,r the cost of environmental damage is approximated to between 100 and 290 billion US dollars. Deforestation represents 75% of this loss and 15% due to the erosion that effects agricultural and pastoral production (Oldfield, 2002). Due to the factors mentioned throughout, and many more, Madagascars species are among the most threatened in the world. Since the arrival of man Madagascar has lost a known 16 species of lemur, including one the size of a gorilla; a pygmy hippo, the largest land bird to ever walk the planet, and giant tortoises, a species that had survived for 200 million years. The ICUN Redlist currently includes 472 Malagasy species at risk of becoming extinct, although this number is probably massively optimistic. Today, Madagascar is arguably the worlds highest conservation priority (ICUN, 2011). Ensuring the survival of lemurs is not only important because they are endemic to Madagascar, but also because they benefit plants and other animals. Many species of lemur are very important seed dispersers for forest trees and pollinators for many of the plants that are also endemic to Madagascar. They are also an important source of food for other animals. The National Association for the Management of Protected Areas in Madagascar (ANGAP) was founded in 1990 to manage Madagascars protected areas system. ANGAPs mission is to safeguard Madagascars ecosystem, research the potential of Madagascars biodiversity, develop environmental education programs for local people, promote potential commercial applications of Madagascars biodiversity, for example ecotourism, and to support sustainable development activities in areas surrounding protected zones. One of ANGAPs goals is to enable local communities to directly benefit from the conservation of Madagascar. Half of the entrance fees to the conservation parks go directly to local communities and visitors can not enter a park without hiring a local guide. ANGAP also works closely with many other organisations and scientists to asses the impact of visitors to the parks and reserves and study the biodiversity of Madagascar. The ANGAP manages the protected areas network in Madagascar (Butler, 200 9). The network includes three types of protected area. Strict nature reserves, national parks, and wildlife reserves. In 2003, at the ICUNs world parks congress, Marc Ravalomanana, the Malagasy president, announced a bold plan to expand the amount of area under protection from approximately 1.7 million hectares to over 6 million hectares. In 2005 the first 10,000 km2 of the new protected areas system of Madagascar was granted protection status and in 2006 1 million hectares was added, both contributing to the overall goal of 10% of Madagascar being protected. This plan also involved broadening the definition of protected areas in Madagascar and legislation has since been passed to allow four new categories of protected area, natural parks, natural monuments, protected landscapes, and national resource reserves (Butler, 2009). Madagascar currently has 19 terrestrial national parks, 2 marine national parks, 5 complete natural reserves, and 21 special reserves. Reference List Baines, E (1997) University of Edinburgh Natural History Museum. Retrieved from http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=493.504.513. Accessed 28/4/2011 Burnie, D (2001). Animal. London: Dorling Kindersley Butler, R. (2009) Wild Madagascar. Retrieved from http://www.wildmadagascar.org/history/. Accessed 29/4/2011 Carwardine, M (2009). Last Chance to See. London: Harper Collins Green, G Sussman, R (1990). Science, New Series, Vol. 248, No. 4952, Pages 212 215 Hooper, R (2005). New Scientist Madagascar Reveals Two New Species of Lemur. Retrieved from http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn7818. Accessed 14/4/2011 ICUN, 2011. ICUN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.4. Retrieved from http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/search. Accessed 24/4/2011 Kimball, S et al (2009). USGA Minerals Yearbook, Area Reports: International 2006, Africa and the Middle East. Washington DC, USA: United Staes Government Printing Office Kottak, C (1980). Past in the Present: History, Ecology and Cultural Variation in Highland Madagascar. Chicago, USA: University of Michigan Press Kremen, C (2010). Traditions That Threaten. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/edens/madagascar/paradise.htm. Accessed on 1/5/2011 Oldfield, S (2002). Rainforest. London: New Holland Publishers (UK) Sauther, M (2006). Lemurs: Ecology and Adaptation. New York, USA: Springer Science and Business Media